Pulse
5 May 2025
For many Protestant Christians, the Reformation of the 16th century was a monumental reform movement that profoundly impacted Western Christianity.
The Reformation is seen primarily, if not exclusively, as an ecclesiastical and theological movement because of its fundamental theological principles. These principles are encapsulated in the famous five solas – sola Scriptura (Scripture alone), sola fide (faith alone), sola gratia (grace alone), solus Christus (Christ alone) and soli Deo gloria (to the glory of God alone).
However, the Reformation was not only a religious and ecclesiastical movement. It is a significant turning point in European history whose impact can be seen in the political and cultural landscape of the continent. Most notably, the Reformation created the conditions that scholars have linked to the emergence of modern democracy.
It is important to note that the great Reformers, such as Martin Luther and John Calvin, were not democratic revolutionaries. They did not set out to change the political environment of Europe. They set their sights rather on returning the church, which they perceived had lost its way, to its proper course.
Nevertheless, the theological ideas they introduced or recovered and the ecclesiastical reformed they introduced had profound – if indirect – impact on the culture and society of Europe.
These ideas paved the way for the development of modern democracy, which emerged in the 17th century. Modern democracy is often characterised by ideals such as government by consent, protection of rights, free and fair elections and civil society and active citizen engagement.
What are some of the theological ideas and reforms introduced by the Reformers that contributed to this transformation?
THE ISSUE OF AUTHORITY
The central issue which the magisterial Reformers grappled with was arguably that of ecclesial authority. Their fundamental dictum, sola scriptura, emphasises the supreme and unquestionable authority of Scripture as the infallible Word of God, to which the Church and its hierarchy must submit.
By holding up the Bible as the primary authority, the Reformers, in one fell swoop, relativised the authority of the clergy of the Roman Church, including that of the pope. The challenge to ecclesial authority had profound ramifications on how the authority of the monarch is perceived, as we shall see.
Additionally, Luther’s translation of the Latin Bible into German, resulting in its vernacularisation, made scripture accessible to ordinary Christians. The Reformers also introduced educational reforms and made effective use of the printing press to improve literacy. As a result, people were empowered to read and interpret scripture for themselves without relying on the interpretation and tutelage of the clergy.
As the Protestant movement gained momentum across Europe, it fostered a new sensibility which made the questioning of authority more acceptable. Although this phenomenon first began in the religious realm, it soon extended beyond religious matters to include political issues.
Luther’s famous Ninety-Five Theses, which he nailed to the door of the Wittenberg Castle Church in 1517, not only criticised the authority of the Roman Catholic Church but also sparked wider discussions on accountability. While the demand for accountability was initially directed at church leaders, it was soon extended to rulers and monarchs as well, particularly in repressive regimes.
In this way, the Reformation precipitated the questioning of the divine right of kings – a cornerstone of monarchical rule in Europe.
Not only did the Protestant movement challenge the authority of the Roman Church, it also introduced the concept of decentralised authority and governance. This is seen acutely with the spread and growth of Protestant churches across Europe.
Rejecting the centralised institutional authority of the Roman Church, these churches adopted more decentralised and congregational forms of governance. The models of church polity that emerged were often characterised by participatory decision-making and accountability.
These developments from the 16th century Reformation arguably contributed to ideas such as social contract, popular sovereignty and civil liberties which are the hallmarks of modern democracy.
INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS AND LIBERTIES
One of the most significant ideas proposed by the Reformers was the priesthood of all believers. Against the centralised authority of the clerical hierarchy, Martin Luther held that every believer had direct access to God (through Christ) without the need of a priestly intermediary.
At the heart of this doctrine was the emphasis that all believers are equal in the eyes of God, countering the hierarchical ecclesial order of the time. Although it must be noted that Luther did not dismiss the importance of the clergy, this doctrine did in some ways diminish its role.
The notion of spiritual equality that this doctrine brings to the fore laid the groundwork for political equality: the conviction that individuals possess inherent rights which must be respected by both religious institutions and secular governments.
This, in turn, led to the development of the notions of individual liberties and rights a couple of centuries later, especially during another important movement in European history: the Enlightenment. For example, these ideas influenced John Locke and other Enlightenment thinkers, who insisted on the natural rights and equality of all before the law.
The emphasis on the equality of all believers led to the adoption of systems of governance in Protestant churches of a more ‘democratic’ nature, with congregational voting and elected elders. These practices gradually influenced political structures, especially in England and the American colonies.
Additionally, the focus on individual liberties led to the promotion of religious pluralism and tolerance. The latter was also fuelled by the proliferation of different Protestant denominations and groups, resulting in intense conflict but which also led eventually to discussions about co-existence and mutual respect.
These developments were crucial to the shaping of modern ideas of religious tolerance, where individuals are accorded the freedom to practise their faith without the fear of persecution. They also challenged the idea that the state should enforce some form of religious conformity.
SEPARATION OF CHURCH AND STATE
The 16th century Reformation has often been said to have played a crucial role in shaping the concept of the separation between Church and state, which became the foundational principle in modern democratic societies.
Martin Luther’s doctrine of the two kingdoms establishes the distinction between the spiritual realm (under the authority of the Church) and the secular realm (under the authority of the state). This doctrine not only weakens the idea that the Church (especially the Pope) has direct control over political affairs, but also serves as the theological basis for rulers to govern independently from ecclesiastical authority.
Interestingly, the doctrine of the priesthood of all believers, which states that every Christian has direct access to God and therefore does not require the mediation of the priest, also has political implications. It served as the basis for the idea of religious liberty and the recognition that faith is a personal choice and, therefore, cannot be imposed by the state.
The resistance theory, which stems from the Reformed Tradition, has also contributed to the eventual separation of Church and state. This theory – developed by John Calvin and Theodore Beza – states that the people have the right to resist a ruler who violates the law of God. This idea (also known as civil disobedience) arguably paved the way for the doctrine of limited government, which postulates that civil authority has no right to control religion.
The spread of Protestantism had also resulted in conflicts between Christians and the established governing authorities, which consequently led to the need to establish distinct spheres of influence.
The Peace of Augsburg (1555) sought to resolve this problem through the principle of ‘Whose realm, whose religion’ (Cuius regio, eius religio), which meant that rulers could determine their territories’ religious affiliation. This, to some extent, signalled the autonomy of these territories within the Holy Roman Empire.
However, the diversity of religious groups (Lutherans, Calvinists, Anabaptists, etc.) that the Reformation spawned resulted in fragmentation, which makes unity elusive, if not impossible. It resulted in devastating conflicts such as the Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648), which led rulers to advocate policies of religious tolerance.
The Peace of Westphalia (1648), which marked the end of the war, was the crucial turning point. It affirmed that rulers had authority over their territories regardless of religious affiliation, laying the foundation of secular states. Enlightenment thinkers such as John Locke (1632-1704) built on these developments to argue for religious liberty and a state which is independent of religious control.
However, it was in the 18th century that countries such as the United States (the First Amendment) and France (secular republicanism) institutionalised the separation of Church and state.
Although the Reformation is not about the creation of secular states, it broke the medieval church’s grip on political power and promoted religious diversity. This arguably set the stage for the principle of secular government and the separation of church and state.
CONCLUSION
It bears repeating that the Reformers did not aim to create modern democracy through their ecclesiastical reforms. Yet their ideas nonetheless laid the groundwork for the profound transformation that reshaped European politics and society in the centuries that followed.
By challenging centralised authority, promoting individual rights and liberties and contributing to the separation of church and state, the Reformation helped to cultivate the principles fundamental to modern democracy.
Dr Roland Chia is Chew Hock Hin Professor at Trinity Theological College (Singapore) and Theological and Research Advisor of the Ethos Institute for Public Christianity.